Public Law Studies Quarterly

The Legal Regime for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the ‎Persian Gulf and the Development of Marine Renewable Energy

Document Type : Article

Authors

Mehdi Partovi Pirooz 1
Sassan Seyrafi 2
Saber Nyavarni 3

1 PhD‏ ‏Student, Department of Public and International Law, Faculty of Law, Theology and Political ‎Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran‎

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Public Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of ‎Tehran, Tehran, Iran‎

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Public and International Law, Faculty of Law, Theology and ‎Political Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.‎

https://doi.org/10.22059/jplsq.2025.386401.3641
Abstract
Marine renewable energy production through new technologies, especially offshore wind turbines, is a rapidly growing industry that is expected to establish itself in the waters of the Persian Gulf in the near future due to its effective role in combating climate change as well as the advantages of energy production at sea. However, marine renewable energy production can have negative environmental impacts, as the installation, maintenance, operation, and decommissioning of these offshore wind farms, along with energy transmission to the grid, can pose serious risks to the the marine environment. Therefore, attention to environmental protection and the sustainability of marine renewable energy development in maritime areas under the jurisdiction of the Persian Gulf states is essential. This paper examines key maritime law documents regarding the protection of the marine environment from the impacts of marine renewable energy production in the Persian Gulf. The review shows that the current framework of the law of the sea system is theoretically capable of providing minimal support for the regional marine environment against the impacts of marine renewable energy production, but it requires further development to ensure comprehensive protection of the marine environment. Nonetheless, this gap also highlights the importance of creating and updating laws at the international, regional, and national levels.

Keywords

convention on biological ‎diversity (cbd)
kuwait ‎regional convention
‎marine renewable energy
‎preservation of the marine ‎environment
unclos.‎
Subjects

  1. English

    Books

    1. Bhattacharya, S. (2023). Civil engineering aspects of a wind farm and wind turbine structures. In Wind Energy Engineering . Academic Press.
    2. Birnie, P., Boyle A., & Redgwell, C. (2009). International Law and the Environment. Oxford University Press.
    3. Breeze, P. (2016). Wind power generation. Academic Press.
    4. Nikitas, G., & Bhattacharya, S. (2020). Wind energy. In Future Energy. Elsevier.
    5. Scovazzi, T., & Tani, I. (2014). Off-shore wind energy development in international law. In International Law and Changing Perceptions of Security . Brill Nijhoff.
    6. Woolley, O. (2022). Renewable Energy and the Law of the Sea. In Emerging Technology and the Law of the Sea. Cambridge University Press.

     

    1. B) Articles
    2. Abad Castelos, M. (2014). Marine renewable energies: opportunities, law, and management. Ocean Development & International Law, 45(2), 221-237.
    3. Amirinia, G., Mafi, S., & Mazaheri, S. (2017). Offshore wind resource assessment of Persian Gulf using uncertainty analysis and GIS. Renewable Energy, 113, 915-929.
    4. Chang, Y. C. (2015). Marine renewable energy—the essential legal considerations. The Journal of World Energy Law & Business, 8(1), 26-44.
    5. Chang, Y. C., Liu, H., Khan, M. I., & Liu, C. (2021). Legal system for the development of marine renewable energy in the USA: a thorough analysis. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 23, 371-385.
    6. Galea, F. (2011). A Legal Regime for the Exploration and Exploitation of Offshore Renewable Energy. Ocean Yearbook Online, 25(1), 101-129.
    7. Garel, E., Rey, C. C., Ferreira, Ó., & Van Koningsveld, M. (2014). Applicability of the “Frame of Reference” approach for environmental monitoring of offshore renewable energy projects. Journal of environmental management, 141, 16-28.
    8. Goodman, C. (2023). Harnessing the Wind Down Under: Applying the UNCLOS Framework to the Regulation of Offshore Wind by Australia and New Zealand. Ocean Development & International Law, 54(3), 253-276.
    9. Hutchins, T. E. (2021). Crafting an international legal framework for renewable energy on the high seas. Environmental Law, 51(2), 485-514.
    10. Kerr, S., Johnson, K., Colton, J., Wright, G., & Weir, S. (2017). Mare reservarum: enclosure of the commons and the evolution of marine rights in an era of ocean industrialisation. In Ocean Energy (pp. 80-98). Routledge.
    11. Leary, D., & Esteban, M. (2009). Climate change and renewable energy from the ocean and tides: calming the sea of regulatory uncertainty. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 24(4), 617-651.
    12. Mahmoudi, S. (1997). Legal protection of the Persian Gulf's marine environment. Marine Policy, 21(1), 53-62.
    13. McDonald, S., & VanderZwaag, D. L. (2015). Renewable Ocean Energy and the International Law and Policy Seascape: Global Currents, Regional Surges. Ocean Yearbook Online, 29(1), 299-326.
    14. Mostafaeipour, A. (2010). Feasibility study of offshore wind turbine installation in Iran compared with the world. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(7), 1722-1743.
    15. Scott, K. N. (2004). International regulation of undersea noise. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 53(2), 287-323.
    16. Scott, K. N. (2006). Tilting at offshore windmills: regulating wind farm development within the renewable energy zone. Journal of Environmental Law, 18(1), 89-118.
    17. Shetty, C., & Priyam, A. (2022). A review on tidal energy technologies. Materials Today: Proceedings, 56, 2774-2779.
    18. Soria-Rodríguez, C. (2016). Marine renewable energies and the European regional seas conventions. Climate Law, 6(3-4), 314-335.
    19. Soria‐Rodríguez, C. (2021). The international regulation for the protection of the environment in the development of marine renewable energy in the EU. Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 30(1), 46-60.
    20. Techera, E. J., & Chandler, J. (2015). Offshore installations, decommissioning and artificial reefs: Do current legal frameworks best serve the marine environment? Marine Policy, 59, 53-60.

     

    1. C) Cases
    2. MOX Plant Case (Ireland v United Kingdom) (Order) [2001] ITLOS Rep 10.
    3. Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area (Advisory Opinion) [2011] ITLOS Rep 10.
    4. Request for an Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Sub-regional Fisheries Commission (SRFC) (Advisory Opinion) [2015] ITLOS Rep 4.
    5. South China Sea Arbitration (Philippines v China) (Award) (12 July 2016) (PCA Case No 2013-19) ICGJ 495 (South China Sea Arbitration.

     

    1. D) Documents
    2. (2000). Decision V/6. Ecosystem Approach’ UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/5/23, Annex.
    3. (2006). Decision VIII/28. Impact Assessment: Voluntary Guidelines on Biodiversity inclusive Impact Assessment’ UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VIII/28.
    4. (2010). Decision X/29. Marine and Coastal Biodiversity’ UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/ DEC/X/29.
    5. (2012a). Synthesis Document on the Experience and Use of Maritime Spatial Planning’ UN Doc UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/18.
    6. (2012b). Decision XI/18, Marine and Coastal Biodiversity: Sustainable Fisheries and Addressing Adverse Impacts of Human Activities, Voluntary Guidelines for Environmental Assessment, and Marine Spatial Planning’ UN Doc UNEP/CBD/COP/ DEC/XI/18.
    7. CBD Report. (2012). Scientific Synthesis on the Impacts of Underwater Noise on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity and Habitats’ UN Doc UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/12.
    8. CBD Report. (2014). Report of the Expert Workshop on Underwater Noise and its Impact on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity’ UN Doc UNEP/CBD/MCB/EM/2014/1/2.
    9. Convention on Biological Diversity. (1992). 1760 UNTS 79.
    10. (2008). Directive 2008/56/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 establishing a framework for community action in the field of marine environmental policy (Marine Strategy Framework Directive) OJ L164/136 (MSFD).
    11. Lopez, A., Green, R., Williams, T., Lantz, E., Buster, G., & Roberts, B. (2022). Offshore Wind Energy Technical Potential for the Contiguous United States. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO.
    12. (2020). Marine Climate Change Impact Evidence Report. Kuwait.
    13. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. (1982). UNTS, 1833 at 396-581.

     

    References In Persian:

    - Articles

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    5. Seyrafi, S., Mousavi, S. F. and Firouzpour, K. (2020). Conservation of Marine Biological Diversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction. Public Law Studies Quarterly, 50(3), 939-966 (In Persian).
Public Law Studies Quarterly
Volume 55, Issue 2 - Serial Number 42
Summer 2025
Summer 2025
Pages 885-910

  • Receive Date 02 December 2024
  • Accept Date 03 February 2025

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