For years, the United States has been engaged in the most extensive programs for implementing a policy of targeted killings outside active combat zones. These operations have generated extensive legal debates. This research focuses on a relatively specific aspect, namely ensuring how a government can be held accountable for conducting such operations. So far, no country has disclosed a mechanism of accountability that guarantees that unlawful killings are investigated, prosecuted, and punished. The refusal of countries to provide accountability regarding these types of policies violates the international legal framework that restricts the unlawful use of lethal force against individuals. The following article discusses legal accountability concerning the United States' targeted killing program and potential mechanisms to enhance this accountability. Thus, accountability is examined first in relation to the decision to designate an individual as a target and then in the execution of the operation. The focus of the research is on the United States program, but the aim is to clarify the complex considerations related to efforts to strengthen legal accountability for any government conducting such operations. However, the findings of this research indicate a lack of any legal mechanism provided by countries employing this program.
M., & Regan. M. (2021). Accountability for targeted killing, in Counter-Terroris the Ethical Issues. by Miller, S.R.M.; Henschke, A.H.; Feltes, J., Delft University of Technology.
McNeal, G. (2012). Are Targeted Killings Unlawful? A Case Study In Empirical Claims Without Empirical Evidence. in Targeted Killings: Law and Morality in an Asymmetrical World, by Claire Finkelstein (ed.), Jens David Ohlin (ed.), Andrew Altman (ed.), Oxford University Press.
B) Articels
Akande, D. (2012). Classification of Armed Conflicts: Relevant Legal Concepts. Oxford Legal Studies Research Paper.
Alston, (2011). The CIA and Targeted Killings Beyond Borders. Harvard National Security Journal, Forthcoming.
Bradley, C., & Goldsmith, J. (2005). Congressional Authorization and The War on Terrorism. Harvard Law Review.
Buchanan, A., & Keohane, (2015). Toward a Drone Accountability Regime. Cambridge University Press.
Combe, M. P. (2017). The Covert Action Statute: The CIA’s Blank Check?. Journal of National Security Law & Policy.
Davis, M. (2011). Combatant Immunity and the Death of Anwar al-Awlaqi. JURIST.
Davis, M. (2011). Combatant Immunity and the Death of Anwar al-Awlaqi,
Dehn, J., & Heller, K. (2011). A Proposal for Judicial Review of Lethal War Measures, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, PENNumbra, Loyola University Chicago School of Law.
Fisher, J (2007). Targeted Killing, Norms, and International Law. J. Transnat'l L. 711.
Mcneal, G. (2014). Targeted Killing and Accountability, The Georgetown Law Journal.
O’Connell, M. E. (2021). Targeted Killings’ in Christina Binder, Manfred Nowak, Jane A Hofbauer, Philipp Janig (eds). Notre Dame Law School.
Paust, Jordan, (2010), Self-Defense Targetings of Non-State Actors and Permissibility of U.S. Use of Drones in Pakistan, Of Transnational Law & Policy.
Pearlstein, D. (2013). Enhancing Due Process in Targeted Killing. The American Constitution Society (ACS).
Savage, (2022). White House Tightens Rules on Counterterrorism Drone Strikes. New York time.
L. (2017). The Obama administration’s conceptual change: Imminence and the legitimation of targeted killings. Cambridge University Press.
Trevisan, S. (2015). The transnational non-international armed conflict: positive norms, leading cases and doctrinal conceptualizations. International law research seminar.
Vladeck, S. (2014).Targeted Killing and Judicial Review. The George Washington Law Review Arguendo.
C) Documents
Commentary to the HPCR Manual on International Law Applicable to Air and Missile Warfare, elaborated by the Drafting Committee of the Group of Experts under the supervision of Professor Yoram Dinstein, Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 July 2013.
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), adopted at Geneva, Switzerland, on June 8, 1977, entry into force December 7, 1978.
Yves Sandoz et al., "Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventinos of 12 August 1949", International Committee of the Red Cross (1986).
The manual of the law of armed conflict, uk ministry of defence, 2004, available at: https://opil.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law/9780199287284.001.0001/law-9780199287284
El-Shifa Pharmaceutical Industries Co. v. United States, 55 Fed. Cl. 751 (2003), March 14, 2003 · United States Court of Federal Claims · No. 00-443L, 55 Fed. Cl. 751, Available a.t: https://cite.case.law/fed-cl/55/751/ .
International court of justice, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), 2005, available at: https://www.icj-cij.org/case/116/judgments.
International court of justice, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 2004, available at: https://www.icj-cij.org/case/131.
International court of justice, Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), 2003, available at: https://www.icj-cij.org/case/90
E) Reports
Report of the Special reporter on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, Philip Alston, Addendum, Study on Targeted Killings, UN Doc. A/HRC/14/24/Add.6, May 28, (2010).
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, Philip Alston; Study on Targeted Killings, (A-HRC 4438),2022.
References in Persian:
A) Articles
Taleghani, A. (2004). Accountability and Responsibility. Andisheh Hawze, (49 & 50) (In Persian).
Lasani, H., & Monfared, M. (2017). Contemplateing on the Legitimacy of Targeted Killing Tactics under International Humanitarian Law. Journal of Legal Studies of Shiraz University, (2), 246-276 (In Persian).
Manzavi, M. (2008). The Doctrine of the US Armed Forces. Journal of Defense Policy, 16, (62) (In Persian).
B) Theses
Monfared, M. (2017). The Applicability of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law to the Policy of Targeted Killing. University of Tehran (Farabi Schools) (In Persian).
Monfared,M . (2025). Legal Accountability of the United States Regarding Targeted Killings. Public Law Studies Quarterly, 55(3), 1839-1864. doi: 10.22059/jplsq.2023.352911.3241
MLA
Monfared,M . "Legal Accountability of the United States Regarding Targeted Killings", Public Law Studies Quarterly, 55, 3, 2025, 1839-1864. doi: 10.22059/jplsq.2023.352911.3241
HARVARD
Monfared M. (2025). 'Legal Accountability of the United States Regarding Targeted Killings', Public Law Studies Quarterly, 55(3), pp. 1839-1864. doi: 10.22059/jplsq.2023.352911.3241
CHICAGO
M Monfared, "Legal Accountability of the United States Regarding Targeted Killings," Public Law Studies Quarterly, 55 3 (2025): 1839-1864, doi: 10.22059/jplsq.2023.352911.3241
VANCOUVER
Monfared M. Legal Accountability of the United States Regarding Targeted Killings. PLSQ. 2025;55(3):1839-1864 (In Persian). doi: 10.22059/jplsq.2023.352911.3241