Public Law Studies Quarterly

Environmental Rights and Protection of the Hamoun Wetlands in International Law

Document Type : Article

Authors

Mahnaz Rashidi 1
Mohammad Hossein Ramazani Ghavamabadi 2

1 Assistant professor, Law Department, Faculty of Humanities, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran

2 Associate Professor, Human Rights and Environmental Law Department, Faculty of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

https://doi.org/10.22059/jplsq.2024.378314.3556
Abstract
Multiple development projects in Afghanistan, by blocking and diverting the flow of rivers in the Helmand River basin, have led to the drying of the Hamoun wetlands and the disregard of their environmental water rights. The concept of environmental water rights has not been explicitly addressed in binding bilateral or multilateral treaties between Iran and Afghanistan. This study seeks to answer the question: How do the principles and rules of international law obligate the Afghan government to ensure the environmental water rights of the Hamoun wetlands? The research hypothesis is that, with the expansion of ecosystem-based approaches in water resource management and the development of international environmental law, both treaty-based and customary principles impose obligations on states to maintain the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems. The results of the authors’ descriptive-analytical study, based on library research, indicate that the “allocated water rights” defined in the Helmand River Treaty do not encompass the concept of environmental water rights. Moreover, there are no bilateral treaties between Iran and Afghanistan governing other rivers in the Helmand River basin. Nevertheless, other binding treaty and customary principles between the parties—such as the principle of equitable and reasonable use, the prohibition of significant transboundary harm, and the obligations of prevention and due diligence—imply the necessity of ensuring environmental water rights to preserve and restore the Hamoun wetlands.

Keywords

international law
ecosystem approach
environmental flow
Hamoun wetlands
Hirmand river basin
Subjects

  1. English

    1. A) Books and Book Sections
    2. Brels, S., Coates, D., & Loures, F. (2008). Transboundary water resources management: the role of international watercourse agreements in implementation of the CBD. Secretariat of the CBD.
    3. McCaffrey, S. (2001). The law of international watercourses: non-navigational uses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    4. Shelton, D. (2008). Soft Law, in: Armstrong. D. (ed). Routledge Handbook of International Law. London and New York: Routledge Press: 68-80.

     

    1. B) Articles
    2. Brunnée, J., & Toope, S.J. (1994), Environmental security and freshwater resources: a case for international ecosystem law. Yearbook of International Environmental Law, 5(1), 41-76.
    3. Magsig, R. M. (2022). An ecosystem approach in international environmental law relevant to transboundary freshwater ecosystems. Chinese Journal of Environmental Law. 6: 125-154. Doi. https://doi.org/10.1163/24686042-12340081.
    4. McIntyre, O. (2004). The emergence of an ‘ecosystem approach’ to the protection of international watercourses under international law. Review of European Community & International Environmental Law. 13(1), 1-14. Doi. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9388.2004.00379.x.
    5. Mianabadi, H., Alioghli, S., & Morid, S. (2021). Quantitative evaluation of ‘no-harm’ rule in international transboundary water law in the Helmand River basin. Journal of Hydrology. 599(126368). DOI:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126368.
    6. Scanlon, J & Iza. A. (2003). International Legal Foundations for Environmental Flows. Yearbook of International Environmental Law. 14(1), 81–100. Doi. https://doi.org/10.1093/yiel/14.1.81.
    7. Tanzi, A. M. (2020). The inter‑relationship between no harm, equitable and reasonable utilisation and cooperation under international water law. Int Environ Agreements. 20: 619–629. Doi: 10.1007/s10784-020-09502-7.
    8. Tignino, M., & Bréthaut, Ch. (2020). The role of international case law in implementing the obligation not to cause signifcant harm. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 20, 631-648. Doi. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-020-09503-6.

     

    1. C) Documents and Reports
    2. Agenda 21. (1992). United Nations Conference on Environment & Development, Rio de Janerio. Brazil.
    3. Award of arbitrator McMahon. (1905). Helmand River Cases. JUS MUNDI. Website: https://jusmundi.com/en/document/decision/en-helmand-river-cases-award-of-arbitrator-mcmahon-monday-10th-april-1905.
    4. CBD Decision V/6. Ecosystem approach (2000). Conference of the parties to the convention on biological diversity at its fifth meeting, Nairobi, 15-26 May.
    5. Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. (1972).
    6. Convention on the law of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses. (1997).
    7. ICJ Reports (2010). Pulp mills on the river Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment.
    8. ICJ Reports. (2018). Certain activities carried out by Nicaragua in the border area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment.
    9. (1994). Draft articles on the law of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses and commentaries
    10. International Law Association (ILA). (2004). Water resources law, Berlin Conference.
    11. Johannesburg declaration on sustainable development. (2002). UN Doc. A/CONF.199/20.
    12. New Delhi declaration on principles of international law relating to sustainable development. )2002(.
    13. (2013). Indus waters Kishenganga arbitration (Pakistan v. India). Case No. 2011-01. Partial Award.
    14. Ramsar Convention Secretariat (a). (2010). Wise use of wetlands: concepts and approaches for the wise use of wetlands. Ramsar handbooks for the wise use of wetlands, 4th edition, vol. 1. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland.
    15. Ramsar Convention Secretariat (b). (2010). Water-related guidance: an integrated framework for the convention’s water-related guidance. Ramsar handbooks for the wise use of wetlands, 4th edition, vol. 8. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland.
    16. Ramsar Cop 7, Doc. 20.1. (1999). Shared wetlands and river basins of the world: preliminary findings of a GIS analysis.
    17. Report of the Helmand river delta commission, Afghanistan and Iran. (1951).
    18. Resolution VII. 18 (1999). People and Wetlands: The Vital Link. 7th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), San José, Costa Rica.
    19. Resolution VII. 18. (1999). Guidelines for integrating wetland conservation and wise use into river basin management. 7th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), San José, Costa Rica.
    20. Resolution VII. 19. (1999). Guidelines for international cooperation under the Ramsar Convention. 7th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), San José, Costa Rica.
    21. Resolution VIII. 1. (2002). Guidelines for the allocation and management of water for maintaining the ecological functions of wetlands. 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), Valencia, Spain.
    22. Resolution VIII.25. (2002). The Ramsar strategic plan 2003-2008. 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971), Valencia, Spain.
    23. The Brisbane declaration (2007). Conservation gateway, Website: https://www.conservationgateway.org/Documents/Brisbane-Declaration-English.pdf.
    24. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, (1969).

     

    1. D) Websites
    2. Ramsar Sites Information Service. (n.d). Website: https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/42; https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/44.
    3. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. (n.d). Hamoun lake. Website: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5276/.

     

    References In persian:

    1. A) Articles
    2. Amini, A., Ghoreishi, SZ., & Mianabadi, H. (2021). Understanding 1973 the Helmand treaty by invoking rules of interpretation according to Vienna convention 1969. Journal of Water and Irrigation Management. 11(2), 249-273. Doi. 10.22059/JWIM.2021.324894.876 (In Persian).
    3. Karamzadeh, S., & Moradian, B. (2017). Iran's rights in exploitation of Hirmand river from international law perspective. Journal of Researches Energy Law Studies. 3(2): 339-370. Doi. 10.22059/JRELS.2018.223734.82 (In Persian).
    4. Khosravi, M. (2010). Temporal and spatial analysis of the stability of the Hamoon lakes. Iran-Water Resources Research. 6(3): 68-79 (In Persian).
    5. Shokoohi razi, K., Rahimi, M., & Zolfaghari, A. (2022). Investigation of the sensitivity of Hamoon-E- Saberi bed to desertification phenomenon. Journal of Watershed Management Research. 13(25), 105-118. Doi. 10.52547/jwmr.13.25.105 (In Persian).

     

    1. C) Documents and Reports
    2. Secretariat of ecosystem comprehensive management of Hamun international wetlands- General Department of Environment of the province (2015). The comprehensive management program of Hamun international wetlands. website: https://crw.doe.ir/portal/file/?1171472/ (In Persian).
    3. The Law of Equitable Distribution of Water, (1983) (In Persian).

     

    1. D) Websites
    2. Iran newspaper. (2021). Destruction of Hamun with the construction of Bakhsh Abad dam in Afghanistan. Website: https://old.irannewspaper.ir/newspaper/item/623720 (In Persian).
    3. Mianabadi, H & Ghoreishi, SZ. (2021). The consequences of Afghanistan's measures and its responsibility in the transboundary water basin shared with Iran, East Studies. website: https://www.iess.ir/fa/analysis/2691/ (In Persian).
Public Law Studies Quarterly
Volume 55, Issue 4 - Serial Number 44
Winter 2026
Winter 2026
Pages 2635-2656

  • Receive Date 22 June 2024
  • Accept Date 11 November 2024

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