Document Type : Article

Authors

1 Associate Prof., Department of Public and International Law, Faculty of Law, University of Qom, Qom, Iran

2 Ph.D. in International Law, Qom Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qom, Iran

Abstract

Protecting installations containing dangerous forces in armed conflicts against reprisals is one of the challenges of recent decades. Since the destruction of the whole or a part of these installations could result in the release of dangerous forces and causing irreparable damage to civilians and civilian property, it seems necessary to establish customary and contracting international rules to protect them against reprisals. Article 56 (4) of the First Additional Protocol of 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, and rules 6.8 and 1006.9 of the Red Cross model manual on the law of armed conflicts for armed forces of 1999, without any conditions, prohibit reprisals against workshops and installations containing dangerous forces, but these actions in armed conflicts are still observed. Article 85(3)(c) of the First Additional Protocol of 1977 in certain circumstances condemns the attack on works and installations containing dangerous forces as a serious violation and considers it a war crime. In this article, attempts have been made to analyze and evaluate the attacks on works and installations containing dangerous forces in the framework of the reprisal system.

Keywords

1. فارسی
الف) کتاب‌ها
1. سیاهرستمی، هاجر؛ حسین‌نژاد، کتایون؛ افچنگی، محسن (1390)، حقوق بین‌الملل بشردوستانه ناظر بر حمایت از افراد در درگیری‌های مسلحانه (مجموعه اسناد ژنو)، تهران، مؤسسۀ آموزش عالی علمی _ کاربردی هلال ایران.
2. عسکری، پوریا (1397)، اقدامات تلافی‌جویانه در جنگ ایران و عراق، همایش سمفونی سرفه‌ها در موزۀ دفاع مقدس، تهران، ایران.
3. کولب، رابرت؛ هاید، ریچارد (1394)، درآمدی بر حقوق مخاصمات مسلحانه، ترجمۀ سید حسام‌الدین لسانی، تهران: مجمع علمی و فرهنگی مجد.
2. انگلیسی
A) Books
1. Al-Duaij, N.Y. (2004), Environmental Law of Armed Conflict, USA: Transnational Publishers Inc.
2. Askari, p., (1397), Reprisals in Iran and Iraq war, Coughs Symphony Conference in at the Museum of Sacred Defence, Tehran, Iran, April 97 (In Persian).
3. Henckaerts, Jean-Marie, Louise Doswald-Beck, (2005), Customary International Humanitarian Law, ICRC, 2nd Ed. Vol. I, UK: Cambridge University Press.
4. Henckaerts, Jean-Marie, Louise Doswald-Beck, (2005), Customary International Humanitarian Law, ICRC, Vol. II, Cambridge University Press.
5. Kolb, R., and Hyde, R., (1394), An Introduction to the International Law of Armed Conflicts, translated by Lesani, S. H., Tehran, Majd Scientific and Cultural Association, 1th edition (In Persian).
6. Le Guelte, Georges., (2014), Histoire de la menace nucléaire, Hachette Littératures.
7. Lorenz, Ferederick. M., (2003), The Protection of Water Facilities under International Law, UNEP, published by PCCP.
8. Pictet, Jean S., et al, (1960), Commentary to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, (1960), published under the general editorship of Jean S. Pictet, ICRC.
9. Pictet, Jean S.,Yves Sandoz et al, (1987), Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, 1st Ed. Geneva: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
10. Ramberg, Bennett., (1980), Destruction of Nuclear Energy Facilities in War, Lexington, D.C. Health & Co.p.203.
11. Rogers, A.P.V & Paul Malherb,(2000), Fight it right: Model manual on the law of armed conflict for armes forces, (preamble by Cornelio Sommarugah), 1st Ed. Geneva: ICRC.
12. Siyahrostami, H., Hosseinnejad, K., Afchangi, M., (1390), International Humanitarian Law on the protection of indivituals in times of Armed Conflicts (The collection of Geneva documents), Tehran, Iranian Red Crescent scientific – applied higher education Institute, 1th edition (In Persian).
13. Yearbook of the International Law Commission, (2001), Commentary of Draft Articles of the Responsibility of States for the Internationally Wrongful Acts, UN 2007, Vol. II, part 2.
 
B)Articles
14. Ahmad Mir, T., (2017), ‘’Protection of Environment during Armed Conflict under International Humanitarian Law’’, Journal on Contemporary Issuses of Law, Vol 3,issue 7.
15. Bilkova, Veronika.,(2014), ‘’Belligerent Reprisals in Non-International Armed Conflict’’, International and Comparative Quarterly,Vol. 63, Issue.
16. Boutruche, T. (2000), ‘’Le statut de l'eau en droit international humanitaire’’, International Review of the Red Cross, 82(840), pp.887-916.
17. Bugnion, Francois, (2018), ‘’Adoption of the Additional Protocols of 8 June, 1977, A milestone in the development of International Humanitarian Law’’, ICRC reports, ICRC, available at: www.icrc.org
18. Cloşcӑ, I., (1980), ‘’Le nouveau code de protection de la population civile et des biens de caractère civil dans les conflits armés’’, International Review of the Red Cross, 62(726), pp.291-323.
19. Colombia, Constitutionality of IHL Implementing Legislation, (2018), ICRC, ‘’How Does Law Protect in War?’’, Available at: casebook.icrc.org
20. Croatia, Prosecutor v. Rajko Radulovic and Others, (1993), ‘’How Does Law Protect in War?’’ , Available at: casebook.icrc.org
21. Darcy, Shane., (2003), ‘’The Evolution of the Law of Belligerent Reprisals’’, Military Law Review, No. 175.
22. Eastern Ukrain, ‘’OHCHR Report on the Situation: November 2016- February 2017’’, Available at: casebook.icrc.org.
23. Fischer, G. (1981),’’ Le bombardement par Israël d'un réacteur nucléaire irakien’’, Annuaire français de droit international, Vol.27, No.1, pp.147-167.
24. Momtaz, Djamchid.(1997), ‘’Les règles relatives à la protection de l'environnement au cours de conflits armés à l'épreuve du conflit entre l'Iraq et le Koweit’’ , Annuaire français de droit international 37.37 : pp.203-219.
25. Newton,Michael. A.,(2010), ‘’Reconsidering Reprisals’’, Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law.
26. Obradovic, Konstantin.,(1997), ‘’L'interdiction des represailles dans le Protocole I: un acquis pour une meilleure protection des victimes de la guerr’’, International Review of the Red Cross 79.pp.827-562-565
27. Turpin, D. (1992), ‘’La protection des populations civiles contre les effets des hostilités’’, Études internationales, Vol.23, No.4, pp.797-817.
28. Zemmali, A. (1995), ‘’La protection de l'eau en période de conflit armé’’, International Review of the Red Cross, 77(815), pp.601-615.
 
C) Websites