Public Law Studies Quarterly

Defining the Nature of the Fundamental Principles of International Space Law in Light of the ILC Draft Articles on Jus Cogens

Document Type : Article

Authors

Ebrahim Beigzadeh 1
Sima Moradinasab 2

1 Prof., Department of International Law, Faculty of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

2 Assistant Prof., Department of International Law, Faculty of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

https://doi.org/10.22059/jplsq.2025.388683.3671
Abstract
International space law, comprising of primary and secondary norms, is an emerging branches of international law system. By examining this legal system, it can be inferred that some principles and rules of international space law enjoy the highest rank in the substantive hierarchy of international law norms. The main reason for this is that these principles and rules, by their very nature, protect the fundamental values of international community. Thus, the main question to be answered is as follows: has the concept of jus cogens entered international space law and, if so, which principles and rules of this legal system have acquired this feature? This paper hypothesizes that the international space law system consists of peremptory norms which are non-derogable. Using the methodology of the ILC in its 2022 report on jus cogens, the said hypothesis will be confirmed. In other words, some space law rules are regarded as non-derogable norms of international law. This is grounded in widespread international practice, opinio juris of states and legal scholarship. It appears, however, that international space law is not a dynamic system in terms of the implementation of legal consequences arising from these obligations.

Keywords

Jus Cogens General International Law International Space Law Erga Omnes Obligations International Law Commission
Subjects

  1. English

    1. A) Books, Chapter Books and Thesis
    2. Cheng, B. (1997). Studies in Space Law, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
    3. Friedl, M. (2024). The COPUOS Briefing Book. Edited by Christopher D. Johnson. Washington DC: Secure World Foundation.
    4. Goedhuis, D. (1969). The International Law Association and the Development of a Legal Regime of Outer Space. In New Frontiers in Space Law. edited by Edward Mcwhinney and Martin A. Bradiey. Leiden: A. W. Sijthoff.
    5. Jakhu, R., & Freeland, S. (2009). Article II. In Cologne Commentary on Space Law. edited by Stephan Hobe, Bernhard Schmidt-Tedd et.al. Köln: Wolters Kluwer Deutschland. 221-270.
    6. Jasentuliyana, N., & Lee, Roy. S. K. (1979). Manual on Space Law. Vol. III (Travaux Preparatories and Related Documents). Dobbs Ferry: Oceana Publications.
    7. Johnson, C. D. (2020). The Law of Outer Space: A Self-Contained Regime?. In Fifty Years of Space Law. edited by Philippe Achilleas and Stephan Hobe. Leiden: Brill Nijhoff Publishing. 127-160.
    8. Kolb, R. (2015). Peremptory International Law- Jus Cogens: A General Inventory. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
    9. Lyall, F., & Larsen, P. B. (2018). Space Law: A Treatise. Second Edition. London: Routledge.
    10. Masson-Zwaan, T., & Hofmann, M. (2019). Introduction to Space Law. Fourth Edition. Leiden: Wolters Kluwer.
    11. Sachdeva, G.S (2017). Select Tenets of Space Law as Jus Cogen. In Recent Developments in Space Law: Opportunities & Challenges. Singapore: Springer International Publishing. 7-26.
    12. Villiger, M. E. (2009). Commentary on the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publisher.
    13. Weatherall, T. (2015). Jus Cogens: International Law and Social Contract. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    14. B) Articles and Papers
    15. Cepelka, C., & Gilmour, J. H.C. (1970). The Application of General International Law in Outer Space. Journal of Air Law and Commerce, 36(1).
    16. Christol, C. Q. (1994). Judge Manfred Lachs and The Principle of jus Cogens. Journal of Space Law, 22 (1 & 2).
    17. Deplano, R. (2021). The Artemis Accords: Evolution or Revolution in International Space Law?. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 70(3).
    18. Freeland, S., & Ireland-Piper, D. (2022). Space Law, Human Rights and Corporate Responsibility, The UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs. 26(1).
    19. Gal, G. (1989). Reflections to the System of the Sources of Space Law. Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law.
    20. Goedhuis, D. (1981). Some Recent Trends in the Interpretation and the Implementation of the Rules of International Space Law. Columbia Journal of Transnational Law. 19(2).
    21. Jakhu, R. S. (2006). Legal Issues Relating to the Global Public Interest in Outer Space. Journal of Space Law. Volume 32.
    22. Jakhu, R. S., & Freeland, S., & Chen, K.W. (2018). The Source of International Space Law: Revisited, Zeitschrift f€ur Luft- und Weltraumrecht German Journal of Air and Space Law (ZLW), 67(4).
    23. Johnson, C. D. (2024). The Deontic Logic of Space Law Applied to Lunar Scenarios. Proceedings of the 75th International Astronautical Congress (IAC). 2024.
    24. Lee, Ricky J. (2002). Jus Ad Bellum in Outer Space: The Interrelation between Article 103 of the Charter of the United Nations and Article IV of the Outer Space Treaty. Proceedings on the Law of Outer Space.
    25. Mac Garry, L. J., & Freeland, S. (2022). What Place for Jus Cogens? How Manfred Lachs Foresaw New Thinking in International Space Law. Journal of Space Law, 46(2).
    26. Mahmoudi, S. H., & Moradinasab, S. (2022). In Search of the Most Appropriate Mechanism for Resolving the Disputes Arising from Large Satellite Constellation. Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law.
    27. Mahmoudi, S. H., & Moradinasab, S. (2023). Responsibility of States in Outer Space as “Lex Specialis Derogat Legi Generali, Zeitschrift f€ur Luft- und Weltraumrecht (German Journal of Air and Space Law), 72(4).
    28. Mahmoudi, S. H., & Moradinasab, S. (2024). Global Space Governance of Remote Sensing and the Needs of Developing States. Chinese Journal of International Law. 23(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/chinesejil/jmae035
    29. Paliouras, Z. A. (2017). The Non-Appropriation Principle: The Grundnorm of International Space Law. Leiden Journal of International Law, (27).
    30. Rathore, E., & Gupta, B. (2020). Emergence of Jus Cogens Principles in Outer Space Law. Astropolitics: The International Journal of Space Politics & Policy. 18(1).
    31. Simma, B. (2009). Universality of International Law from the Perspective of a Practitioner, European Journal of International Law. 20(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chp028
    32. Talmon, S. (2015). Determining Customary International Law: The ICJ’s Methodology between Induction, Deduction and Assertion. European Journal of International 26(2). https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chv020
    33. Tunkin, G. (1993). Is General International Law Customary Law Only?. European Journal of International Law. 4(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.ejil.a035843

     

    1. C) Documents
    2. A/61/10, Report of the International Law Commission, Fifty-Eight Session, 2006.
    3. A/77/10, International Law Commission (ILC), Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Peremptory Norms of General International Law (Jus Cogens), 2022.
    4. A/AC.105/1067, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Report of the Legal Subcommittee on its fifty-third session, held in Vienna from 24 March to 4 April 2014.
    5. A/AC.105/C.2/2015/CRP.11, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Fifty-Fourth Session, ‘Responses to the Set of Questions Provided by the Chair of the Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space’, 2015.
    6. A/AC.105/C.2/2015/CRP.25, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Fifty-fourth Session, Answers from the Chair of the Space Law Committee of the International Law Association (ILA) to questions by the Chair of the Working Group of the LSC, 2015.
    7. A/AC.105/C.2/2017/CRP.6, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Fifty-Sixth Session, Responses to the set of Questions provided by the Chair of the Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space, 23 March 2017.
    8. A/AC.105/C.2/2018/CRP.12, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Fifty-Seventh Session, ‘Responses to the set of questions provided by the Chair of the Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space’, 2018.
    9. A/AC.105/C.2/2018/CRP.16, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Fifty-Seventh Session, ‘Responses to the Set of Questions Provided by the Chair of the Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space, Vienna, 9-20 April, 2018.
    10. A/AC.105/C.2/2021/CRP.23, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Sixtieth Session, Set of questions provided by the Chair of the Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space, taking into account the UNISPACE+50 process, 2021.
    11. A/AC.105/C.2/2022/CRP.18, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Sixty-first Session, Item 6 of the Provisional Agenda, Status and application of the five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space, 2022.
    12. A/AC.105/C.2/2024/CRP.8, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Legal Subcommittee, Sixty-Third Session, Responses to the set of questions provided by the Chair of the Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space, 2024.
    13. A/RES/1962 (XVIII), ‘Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space’, adopted on 13 December 1963.
    14. A/RES/2777, Convention on International Liability Caused by Space Objects, 29 November 1971.
    15. A/RES/59/115, ‘Application of the Concept of “Launching State”’, 25 January 2005.
    16. A/RES/62/101, ‘Recommendations on Enhancing the Practice of States and International Intergovernmental Organizations in Registering Space Objects’, 10 January 2008.
    17. A/RES/76/231, Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 24 December 2021, on the Report of the First Committee; (2) United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs, Open-Ended Working Group on Reducing Space Threats, https://meetings.unoda.org/open-ended-working-group-on-reducing-space-threats-2022, Last Visited on November 27, 2024.
    18. Convection on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, entered into force on 29 March 1972.
    19. Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, signed on 12 November 1974.
    20. International Law Association (ILA), Report of 51st Conference, 1964.
    21. International Law Association (ILA), Report of 56th Conference, 1974-1975.
    22. International Law Association (ILA), Report of 59th Conference, 1980.
    23. International Law Association (ILA), Report of the 49th Conference, 1959
    24. International Law Association (ILA), Report of the 58th Conference, 1978.
    25. Office for Disarmament Affairs, Securing Our Common Future: An Agenda for Disarmament, 2018.
    26. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 27 January 1967, entered into force 10 October 1967.
    27. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), signed on 23 May 1969.

     

    1. D) Cases
    2. Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), ICJ, Judgment of 3 February 2006, Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Dugard.
    3. Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), ICJ, Judgement of 5 February 1970, Second Phase.
    4. Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), ICJ, Judgment of 9 April 1949.
    5. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, ICJ, Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004.
    6. Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), ICJ, Judgment of 20 July 2012.

     

    1. E) Websites
    2. United Nations Offices for Outer Space Affairs, Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/lsc/wg-tre/working-group-on-tre.html, Last Visited on August 19, 2024.
    3. US Department of State, United States Welcomes Liechtenstein’s Signing of the Artemis Accords, https://www.state.gov/united-states-welcomes-liechtensteins-signing-of-the-artemis-accords-2/, Last Visited on December 5, 2024.
    4. United Nations Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space (unoosa.org), Last Visited on March 5, 2024.

     

    References In Persian:

    1. A) Books
    2. Beigzadeh, E. (2019). International Organizations Law. 9th Edition. Tehran: Majd Publications (In Persian).
    3. Beigzadeh, E. (2022). International Law. Vol.1. First Edition, Tehran: Mizan Publications (In Persian).
    4. Mahmoudi, S. H., (2014). International Space Law. 1st ed. Tehran: Samt Publications (In Persian).

     

    1. B) Articles
    2. Suy, E. (1992). Le Droit international a L’heure de la Codification. Translated by Ebrahim Beigzadeh Legal, Research Quarterly, 10 (1), 243-274 (In Persian).
Public Law Studies Quarterly
Volume 56, Issue 1 - Serial Number 45
Spring 2026
Spring 2026
Pages 153-176

  • Receive Date 12 January 2025
  • Accept Date 05 May 2025

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