نوع مقاله : علمی-پژوهشی
نویسندگان
1 استادیار، گروه حقوق بشر و حقوق محیط زیست، دانشکدۀ حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران
2 دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد حقوق جزا و جرمشناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم انسانی، دانشگاه کاشان، اصفهان، ایران
چکیده
آزادی بیان قلمروهای مختلفی از زندگی بشری از جمله فعالیتهای سیاسی را در برمیگیرد که بر اساس ویژگی نسل نخست حقوق بشر، اصل محدودیت مداخلۀ دولت به این حق ضمیمه میشود. پیوند ورزش با سیاست و تنظیمشدگی مقولۀ ورزش توسط نهادهای حاکم، آزادی بیان سیاسی در ورزش؛ به معنای آزادی بیان در محیط ورزشی و نیز آزادی بیان ورزشکاران در محیط ورزشی و خارج از آن را تحت محدودیتهای قانونی و رویهای قرار داده است. این نوشتۀ توصیفی-تحلیلی و کتابخانهای، با بررسی ضوابط و رویههای بینالمللیِ آزادی بیان سیاسی در ورزش، در پی احصای چالشهای تحدید آزادی بیان سیاسی و نیز پیش نهادن برخی ملاحظات حقوقی در این زمینه است؛ از جمله ضرورت مدلل بودن محدودیت آزادی بیان به دکترین مخاطب اسیر، ضرر ناشی از برخی بیانها، اثر قرارداد بر تحدید آزادی بیان و ضرورت پشتوانگی اجتماعی از حق. پیگیری بیطرفی سیاسی، باید بهصورت مشروع، نظاممند و محدود به ضرورت، بوده و تنها در صورت پیشبینی قانون و ضرورت احترام به حقوق یا حیثیت دیگران و حفظ امنیت ملی یا نظم عمومی یا سلامت یا اخلاق عمومی، مشروع خواهد بود. همچنین پایش نسبت ورزش با سیاست، سبب غفلت از کارویژۀ ورزش در ساخت یک جامعۀ صلحآمیز مرتبط با حفظ کرامت انسانی نشود.
کلیدواژهها
موضوعات
عنوان مقاله [English]
The freedom of political expression in sports: a study of international standards and practice
نویسندگان [English]
- Seyyed Mohsen Ghaemi Khargh 1
- Saeed Esfahani moghaddam 2
1 Department of Human Rights and Environment, Faculty of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
2 Master in Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Humanities, Kashan University, Isfahan, Iran
چکیده [English]
Freedom of expression covers various areas of life including political activities and based on the first generation of human rights, the principle of limiting government intervention is attached to right. The connection between sports and politics and the regulation of the sports category by the ruling institutions, freedom of political expression in sports has been placed under legal and procedural restrictions. This descriptive-analytical and bibliographic writing, by examining the international procedures of freedom of political expression in sports seeks to quantify the challenges of limiting the freedom of expression and also to propose some legal considerations in this field. The necessity of restricting the freedom of expression to the captive audience doctrine, the harm caused by some expressions, effect of the contract and the necessity of social support of the right. The pursuit of political neutrality should be legitimate, systematic and limited to necessity, and only if it is foreseen by law and the necessity of respecting the rights or dignity of others and maintaining national security or public order or health or public morals. Also monitoring the relationship between sports and politics should not neglect of special task of sports in building peaceful society related to preserving human dignity.
کلیدواژهها [English]
- sports
- sports rights
- freedom of expression
- political rights
- international law.
- فارسی
- فرومن، میشل (1382). حمایت از آزادی و برابری. ترجمۀ علیاکبر گرجی، حقوق اساسی، 2 (1)، 150-210.
- قاری سیدفاطمی، سید محمد (1384). توسعۀ قلمرو و تضمین محدودیت: آزادی بیان در آیینۀ حقوق بشر معاصر مبانی نظری و پیامدهای حقوقی. تحقیقات حقوقی، ۸ (123)، 105-134.
- انگلیسی
- Books
- S., & Stewart, B. (2013). The special features of sport: a critical revisit in S Söderman and H Dolles (eds), Handbook of Research on Sport and Business. UK: Edward Elgar.
- Altman, A. (2012). Freedom of Expression and Human Rights Law: The Case of Holocaust Denial in I Maitra and MK McGowan (eds), Speech and Harm: Controversies Over Free Speech. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Beitz, CR. (2009). The Idea of Human Rights. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Dworkin, R. (1986). A Matter of Principle. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Goldblatt, D. (2016). The Games. A Global History of the Olympics. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
- Henderson, S. (2013). Sidelined: How American Sports Challenged the Black Freedom Struggle. Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky.
- Mill, JS. (2005). On Liberty and Other Essays, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Nafziger, JAR. (1988). International Sports Law. Transnational Publishers. Central European University: Brill Nijhoff
- Parrish, R. (2003). Sports Law and Policy in the European Union. England: Manchester University Press.
- Pérez, JL. (2013). The Challenge of Modern Sport to Ethics: From Doping to Cyborgs, Lexington Books
- Raz, J. (1988). The Morality of Freedom. Oxford Scholarship Online 2003.
- Redish, MH. (1984). Freedom of Expression: A Critical Analysis. YT: Michie Co.
- Richards, DAJ. (1999). Free Speech and the Politics of Identity, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Schauer, F. (1982). Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Schauer, F. (2012). free speech: a philosophical enquiry, cambridge university press.
- Shiffrin, SH. (1990). The First Amendment, Democracy, and Romance. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- Simmons, R .(2006). The demand for spectator sports in W Andreff and S Szymanski (eds), Handbook on the Economics of Sport.
- Weinstein, J. (2009). Extreme Speech, Public Order, and Democracy: Lessons from The Masses in J Weinstein and I Hare (eds), Extreme Speech and Democracy. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
- Articles
- Baker, C. (2008). scope of the first amendment freedom of speech. ucla l. Rev, 25 (1), 1-77.
- Beck, U. & Sznaider, N. (2010). Unpacking cosmopolitanism for the social sciences: a research agenda. The British Journal of Sociology. 61 (1), 381-403.
- Cass, R. (1987). The perils of positive thinking: constitutional interpretation and negative first amendment theory. ucla l. Rev. 34 (1), 1405-1414.
- Cooper, JN. & others (2019). Race and resistance: A typology of African American sport activism. International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 54(2), 151-181.
- Cover, RM. (2013). The Supreme Court, 1982 Term - Foreword: Nomos and Narrative. Harvard Law Review, 97 (4), 4-68.
- Dzehtsiarou, y. K. (2011). European Consensus and the Evolutive Interpretation of the European Convention on Human Rights. German Law Review. 12(10), 1730-1745.
- Faut, F. (2014). The Prohibition of political statements by athletes and its consistency with Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights: speech is silver, silence is gold?. The International Sports Law Journal. 4 (14), 253-263.
- Feezell, R. (2005). Celebrated Athletes, Moral Exemplars, and Lusory Objects. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 32(1), 20–35.
- Gelber, K. (2012). Political Culture, Flag Use and Freedom of Speech. Political Studies. 60(1), 163-179.
- Gerrard, B. (2006). Competitive Balance and the Sports Rights Market: What Are the Real Issues in C Jeanrenaud and S Késenne (eds), The Economics of Sport and Media. 29 (2), 1-48.
- Giulianotti, R., & GPT Finn (2009). Old visions, old issues: New horizons, new openings? Change, continuity and other contradictions in world football. Sport in Society. 2(3), 256–282..
- Gleaves, J., & Llewellyn, M. (2014). Ethics, Nationalism, and the Imagined Community: The Case Against Inter-National Sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. 41(1), 1–19.
- Ingber, S. (1984). The Marketplace of Ideas: A Legitimizing Myth. Duke Law Journal. 22 (1), 1-99.
- Kaufman, P., & Wolff, EA. (2010). Playing and Protesting: Sport as a Vehicle for Social Change. Journal of Sport and Social Issues. 34(2), 154-175.
- Klein, SE. (2017). An Argument against Athletes as Political Role Models 10 Fair Play. Revista de Filosofía, Ética y Derecho del Deporte. 1 (10), 25-45.
- Krzyzaniak, JS. (2018). The soft power strategy of soccer sponsorships. Soccer & Society. 19(4), 498–515.
- Lakier, G. (2015). The Invention of Low-Value Speech. Harvard Law Review. 22 (128), 2166-2233.
- Mutz, M., & Gerke, M (2018). Major Sporting Events and National Identification: The Moderating Effect of Emotional Involvement and the Role of the Media. Communication & Sport. 6(5), 605-626.
- Rorke, T., & Copeland, A. (2017). Athletic Disobedience: Providing a Context for Analysis of Colin Kaepernick’s Protest. Revista de Filosofía, Ética y Derecho del Deporte. 3 (10), 84-107.
- Schauer, F. (1981). Categories and the First Amendment: A Play in Three Acts. Vanderbilt Law Review. 34 (2), 265-310.
- Schmidt, SH., and others (2018). An Experimental Examination of Activist Type and Effort on Brand Image and Purchase Intentions. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 27 (1), 31-43.
- Strauss, DA. (1991). Persuasion, Autonomy, and Freedom of Expression. Columbia Law Review. 91, 20.
- Wasserman, HM. (2005). Cheers, Profanity, and Free Speech. Journal of College and University Law. 31 (2), 377-393.
- Whigham and others (2019). Més Que Un Joc?: Sport and Contemporary Political Nationalism in Scotland and Catalonia’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues. 43(3), 219-244..
- Wright, RG. (2017). The Heckler’s Veto Today. Case Western Reserve Law Review. 68 (1), 159-188.