فصلنامه مطالعات حقوق عمومی دانشگاه تهران
دانشکده حقوق و علوم سیاسی دانشگاه تهران

حملات سایبری و حقوق بین‌الملل: شکاف‌های حقوقی بند 2 مادۀ 4 و مادۀ 51 منشور ملل متحد

نوع مقاله : علمی-پژوهشی

نویسنده

منیژه اسکندری

دانش‌آموختۀ مقطع دکتری روابط بین‌الملل و پژوهشگر روابط و حقوق بین‌الملل، ایران

https://doi.org/10.22059/jplsq.2025.382206.3603
چکیده
امروزه فناوری‌های نوین بخش جدایی‌ناپذیری از زندگی بشر شده‌اند. فضای سایبری نیز قلمرو جدیدی است که دولت‌ها، اشخاص و شرکت‌ها می‌توانند منافع بسیاری از آن کسب کنند. در عین حال، تهدیدات امنیتی موجود می‌تواند به آن راه یابد یا تهدیدات جدیدی در آن ظهور کند. از آنجا که زیرساخت‌های حکومتی، اقتصادی و خدمات همگانی حیاتی به‌طور فزاینده به سیستم‌های دیجیتال وابسته‌اند، دولت‌ها خود را در برابر تشدید تهدیدات سایبری آسیب‌پذیر می‌یابند. پرسش اصلی این است که آیا حقوق بین‌الملل، به‌ویژه بند 4 مادۀ 2 منشور ملل متحد دربارۀ منع توسل به زور، و مادۀ 51 منشور مربوط به دفاع از خود می‌توانند در مورد حملات سایبری به‌کار آیند؟ در پاسخ، این فرضیه را به آزمون می‌گذاریم که به‌نظر می‌رسد ویژگی‌های بی‌مانند فضای سایبری که این حوزه را از قلمرو فیزیکی متمایز می‌‌سازد، کاربست حقوق بین‌الملل موجود را با چالش‌های اساسی مواجه کرده است. این پژوهش با تحلیل موانع اصلی حقوقی موجود، بر ضرورت ارائۀ یک چارچوب حقوقی بین‌المللی الزام‌آور حاکم بر فعالیت‌های سایبری دولت‌ها تأکید می‌کند. نظام حقوقی فراگیری که بتواند با روند توسعۀ عملیات سایبری سازگار گردد، و نیز به میزان کافی صریح و دقیق باشد تا به‌طور مؤثری آنها را سامان دهد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

توسل به زور
حقوق بین‌الملل
حملۀ سایبری
دفاع از خود
فضای سایبری
موضوعات

عنوان مقاله English

Cyberattacks and International Law: Legal Gaps in Articles 4 (2) and 51 of the United Nations Charter

نویسنده English

Manizheh Eskandari
Ph.D. in International Relations & A Researcher in International Relations and International Law, Iran
چکیده English

Today, emerging technologies have become an inseparable part of human life. Cyberspace is a new domain from which states, individuals, and companies can derive significant benefits. At the same time, existing security threats can penetrate it, or new threats may emerge within it. As governmental, economic, and essential public service infrastructures increasingly rely on digital systems, states find themselves vulnerable to escalating cyber threats. The central question is whether international law—particularly Article 2, paragraph 4 of the United Nations Charter regarding the prohibition of the use of force, and Article 51 on the right to self-defense—can be applied to cyberattacks. In response, this study tests the hypothesis that the unique characteristics of cyberspace, which distinguish it from the physical domain, pose fundamental challenges to the application of existing international law. This research analyzes the main legal obstacles and emphasizes the necessity of establishing a binding international legal framework governing states’ cyber activities. Such a comprehensive legal system should be compatible with the evolving nature of cyber operations while being sufficiently explicit and precise to effectively regulate them.

کلیدواژه‌ها English

use of force
international law
cyber attack
self-defense
cyberspace
  1. فارسی

- مقالات

  1. احمدی فرد، مرتضی؛ حاتمی، مهدی؛ آزادبخت، فرید (1402). نظریۀ انباشت وقایع در توسل به دفاع مشروع بین‌المللی. مجلۀ حقوقی بین‌المللی، 40 (70) ، 53-76. DOI: 10.22066/CILAMAG.2023.706167
  2. قاسمی، علی؛ چهاربخش، ویکتور بارین (1391). حملات سایبری و حقوق بین‌الملل. مجلۀ حقوقی دادگستری، 76 (78)، 115-145 https://doi.org/10.22106/jlj.2012.11057 DOI:

 

  1. انگلیسی
  2. A) Books
  3. Buchan, R. (2018). Cyber Espionage and International Law. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
  4. Corten, O. (2012). The Law against War: The Prohibition on the Use of Force in Contemporary International Law. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
  5. Dworkin, R. (1986). Law’s Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  6. Gazzini, T. (2006).The Changing Rules on the Use of Force in International Law. Manchester University Press.
  7. Gray, C. (2018). International Law and the Use of Force. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  8. Schmitt, M. N. (2013). Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  9. Schmitt, M. N. (ed.), (2017). Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  10. Singer P.W., & Friedman A. (2014). Cybersecurity and Cyberwar, What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

 

  1. B) Articles
  2. Barnes, J. E. (2019). U.S. Cyberattack Hurt Iran’s Ability to Target Oil Tankers, Officials Say., The New York Times, 28 August 2019, www.nytimes .com/ 2019/ 08/ 28/ us/ politics/ us - iran -cyber -attack .html? action = click&module = Top %20Stories & pgtype =Homepage.
  3. Buchan, R., & Tsagourias, N. (2021). Cyber Attacks, Use of Force and Self-Defense. In Regulating the Use of Force in International Law, Stability and Change, by Russell Buchan and Nicholas Tsagourias, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing pp. 114-130.
  4. Buchan, R. (2012). Cyber Attacks: Unlawful Uses of Force or Prohibited Interventions?. Journal of Conflict and Security Law (17)2, pp.211-227. Doi:10.1093/jcs1/krs014.
  5. Cherry, L. M., & Pascucci, P. P. (2023). International Law in Cyberspace, in ABA (American Bar Association),https://www.americanbar.org/groups/law_national_security/publications/aba-standing-committee-on-law-and-national-security-60-th-anniversary-an-anthology/international-law-in-cyberspace/
  6. Convention on Cybercrime (also known as the Budapest Convention), (2001), Nov. 23, ETS No. 185, and the Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime Concerning the Criminalization of Acts Committed through Computer Systems, Jan. 28, 2003, ETS No. 189.
  7. Egan, B. J. (2017). International Law and Stability in Cyberspace, Berkeley J. Int'l Law (35)1, 169-180. (DOI) http://dx.doi.org/
  8. Gill, T. D., & Ducheine, P.A. L. (2013). Anticipatory Self-Defense in the Cyber Context, International Law Studies (89)1, 438-471.
  9. Koh, H. H. (2012).  International Law in Cyberspace.Harvard International Law Journal (54) 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chaa057.
  10. Madubuike-Ekwe, J.N. (2021). Cyberattack and the Use of Force in International Law, Beijing Law Review, (12), pp. 631-649. https://doi.org/10.4236/blr.2021.122034
  11. Ney, P. C. Jr. (2020). Some Considerations for Conducting Legal Reviews of U.S. Military Cyber Operations. Harvard International Law Journal (62)2, 22-41.
  12. Pangrazzi, S. (2021). Self-Defense against Cyberattacks? Digital and Kinetic Defense in Light of Article 51 UN Charter, Geneva: ICT4Peace Publishing. 1-22.
  13. Ruys, T. (2014). The Meaning of “Force” and the Boundaries of the Jus ad Bellum: Are “Minimal” Uses of Force Excluded from UN Charter Article 2(4)?. American Journal of International Law (108)2, 159-210. DOI: 10.5305/amerjintelaw.108.2.0159.
  14. Schroefl, J., & Kaufman, S. (2014). Hybrid Actors, Tactical Variety: Rethinking Asymmetric and Hybrid War, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 37(10), 862-880. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2014.941435.
  15. Tsagourias, N. (2019). The Slow Process of Normativizing Cyberspace. American Journal of International Law (113) Unbound 71, 71-75. https://doi.org/10.1017/aju.2019.9.
  16. Tsagourias, N. (2012). Cyber Attacks, Self- Defense and the Problem of Attribution. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, (17)2, 229-244. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krs019.
  17. Tsagourias, N., & Farrell, M. (2020). Cyber Attribution: Technical and Legal Approaches and Challenges. European Journal of International Law (31)3, 941-967. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chaa057

 

  1. C) Documents, Reports, Essays
  2. ICJ International Court of Justice (1986). “Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Judgment Merits”, ICJ Rep. 14, 27 Jun 1986, http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/70/6503.pdf.
  3. ICJ International Court of Justice (2003). “Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Merits” ICJ Rep. 161, 6 November 2003.
  4. Kaljulaid, K. (2019). President of the Republic of Estonia, Remarks at the Opening of CyCon 2019 (May 29, 2019). https://www.president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/15241-president-of-the-republic-at-the-opening-of-cycon-2019/index.html.
  5. Kosseff, J. (2019). The Contours of ‘Defend Forward” under International Law, Tallinn: NATO CCD COE Publications.
  6. Ministry of Defense of France, (2019). International Law Applied to Operations in Cyberspace, Sept. 9, 2019. https://cyberlaw.ccdcoe.org/wiki/ National_position_of_France (2019)? oldid=3763.
  7. National Position of Canada, (2022).International Law in Cyberspace. April 22, 2022. https://cyberlaw.ccdcoe.org/wiki/National_position_of_Canada_(2022)?oldid=4128.
  8. NATO, (2018) ‘Brussels Summit Declaration Issued by the Heads of State and Government Participating in the Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels 11–12 July 2018’, para. 20, www.nat int/ cps/en/ natohq/ official texts 156624 htm? Selected Locale = u k.
  9. Netherlands Letter to the Parliament on the International Legal Order in Cyberspace’ (2019) www .government.nl/ministries/ministry-of-foreign-affairs/documents/parliamentary-documents/2019/09/26/ letter-to-the-parliament-on-the-international-legal-order-in-cyberspace.
  10. Roguski, P. (2020). Application of International Law to Cyber Operations: A Comparative Analysis of States’Views,The Hague Program for Cyber Norms Policy Brief. March 2020. https://www.thehaguecybernorms.nl › application-of-int.
  11. Schmitt, M. N. (2019). ‘France’s Major Statement on International Law and Cyber: An Assessment’ (16 September 2019) Just Security, www .just security .org/ 66194/frances-major -statement -on -international -law -and -cyber -an -assessment/ .
  12. Talem, C. (2020). International Law in Cyberspace: Cyber Attacks as Use of Force, Center for Cyber Security and International Relations Studies (CCSSII). https://www.cssii.unifi.it/ls-6-cyber-security.html.
  13. UN GA. A/73/266, General Assembly Resolution on Advancing Responsible State Behavior in cyberspace in the context of international security, UN Document A/73/266, 22 December 2018.
  14. UN GA. A/76/136, General Assembly Official Compendium of Voluntary National Contributions on the Subject of How International Law Applies to the Use of Information and Communications Technologies by States, UN Document A/76/136, 13 July 2021.
  15. UN GA. A/68/98, Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security, UN Document A/68/98, June 24, 2013.
  16. UN GA. A/59/565, Report of the Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, ‘A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility’, UN Doc. A/59/565, 2 December 2004.
  17. UN GA. A/72/315, General Assembly Resolution on Developments in the field of information and telecommunications in the context of international security, UN Document Res. A/72/315, 11 August, 2017.
  18. U.N. GA. A/70/174, Report of the Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security, UN Document Res. A/70/174, 22 July 2015.
  19. UN GA. 58/199, General Assembly Resolution on Creation of a global culture of cybersecurity and the protection of critical information infrastructures 30 January 2004.
  20. UN GA. A/73/27, General Assembly Resolution on Developments in the field of information and telecommunications in the context of international security, UN Document Res. A/73/27, 5 December 2018.
  21. UN Secretary-General’s address to the 76th Session of the UN General Assembly, 21 September 2021.
  22. US Department of Defense, (2018). ‘Summary, Department of Defense Cyber Strategy 2018’ (2018) 2, https:// media .defense.gov/ 2018/ Sep/ 18/ 2002041658/ -1/ -1/ 1/ CYBER_STRATEGY SUMMARY FINAL .PDF.
  23. Wright, J. (2018). United Kingdom Attorney General, ‘Cyber and International Law in the 21st Century’ (23 May 2018) www .gov.uk/ government/ speeches/ cyber -and -international -law -in -the -21st -century.
فصلنامه مطالعات حقوق عمومی دانشگاه تهران
دوره 55، شماره 4 - شماره پیاپی 44
زمستان 1404
زمستان 1404
صفحه 2693-2715

  • تاریخ دریافت 28 شهریور 1403
  • تاریخ بازنگری 27 آبان 1403
  • تاریخ پذیرش 15 بهمن 1403

صفحه اصلی

اصول اخلاقی انتشار مقاله

فرایند ارزیابی و پذیرش مقالات

ارسال مقاله

بانک‌ها و نمایه‌نامه‌ها

تماس با ما